Key Insights
The North American cardiac holter monitor market, valued at $11.96 billion in 2025, is projected to experience robust growth, driven by a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.43% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is fueled by several key factors. The increasing prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, particularly among the aging population, creates a significant demand for accurate and convenient cardiac monitoring solutions. Technological advancements, such as the integration of smart wearable technology and the development of sophisticated algorithms for data analysis, are enhancing the diagnostic capabilities and user experience of holter monitors. Furthermore, the rising adoption of remote patient monitoring (RPM) programs, particularly within home care settings, contributes to market growth by allowing for continuous monitoring and early intervention. This shift towards ambulatory care and a focus on preventative healthcare further supports the market's expansion. Competition among key players like Medtronic, Abbott Laboratories, and Boston Scientific drives innovation and accessibility of advanced cardiac monitoring devices.
However, market growth is not without challenges. High costs associated with advanced devices, including implantable loop recorders, and limited insurance coverage can pose barriers to wider adoption. Furthermore, the market faces ongoing regulatory scrutiny concerning data privacy and security, particularly with the increased reliance on connected devices and data transmission. Despite these restraints, the market's long-term outlook remains positive, driven by the escalating burden of cardiovascular disease and the ongoing development of sophisticated and user-friendly cardiac monitoring solutions. The segmentation of the market, including devices such as ECG monitors, event recorders, and pacemakers, along with variations in end-user settings (hospitals, home care, ambulatory centers), presents opportunities for targeted market penetration and specialized product development. The continued expansion in the use of remote monitoring and telehealth platforms is likely to be a major force shaping the market's future trajectory.

North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Report: 2019-2033
This comprehensive report provides a detailed analysis of the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market, offering invaluable insights for industry professionals, investors, and stakeholders. Covering the period from 2019 to 2033, with a base year of 2025 and a forecast period of 2025-2033, this report dissects market dynamics, segmentation, key players, and future growth potential. The market is expected to reach xx Million by 2033, exhibiting a CAGR of xx% during the forecast period.
North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Structure & Innovation Trends
The North American cardiac holter monitor market exhibits a moderately consolidated structure, with several major players holding significant market share. iRhythm Technologies Inc., Biotronik, Schiller AG, Baxter International Inc. (Hill-Rom Holdings Inc.), Koninklijke Philips N.V. (Biotelemetry), Abbott Laboratories, Medtronic PLC, General Electric Company (GE Healthcare), and Boston Scientific Corporation are key players, each contributing significantly to overall market revenue. Precise market share data for each company is proprietary and requires purchasing the full report. However, the level of consolidation suggests a highly competitive environment with ongoing M&A activity shaping the market landscape.
The market's innovation is driven by the increasing demand for advanced features such as remote monitoring capabilities, improved diagnostic accuracy, and patient-friendly designs. Stringent regulatory frameworks, particularly from the FDA, influence product development and market entry. The emergence of smart wearables and advancements in AI-powered diagnostic tools are transforming the industry. Substitute products, such as smartphone-based ECG apps, also exert some pressure, though the accuracy and reliability of holter monitors maintain a clear advantage for professional medical diagnosis. The end-user demographics are expanding with a growing aging population and rising prevalence of cardiovascular diseases. Significant M&A activity, with deal values reaching xx Million in recent years (precise figures within the full report), points to consolidation and market expansion.

North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Dynamics & Trends
The North American cardiac holter monitor market is experiencing substantial growth driven by several key factors. The rising prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, such as arrhythmias and heart failure, coupled with an aging population significantly boosts demand for accurate and reliable cardiac monitoring solutions. Technological advancements, including the development of miniaturized, wearable devices with enhanced capabilities (such as remote monitoring and data analysis), are transforming the market. Consumer preferences are increasingly shifting towards non-invasive, convenient, and user-friendly monitoring solutions. The market displays strong competitive dynamics, with companies focusing on product innovation, technological advancements, and strategic partnerships to gain a competitive edge. The growing adoption of telehealth and remote patient monitoring further accelerates market growth. The market penetration of advanced features like AI-based diagnostics is steadily increasing, and the trend is likely to continue throughout the forecast period. Market growth is expected to continue, driven by increasing technological advancements and the aging population, leading to a robust CAGR over the forecast period (xx%).

Dominant Regions & Segments in North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market
Dominant Region: The United States holds the largest market share within North America due to advanced healthcare infrastructure, high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, and increased adoption of advanced cardiac monitoring technologies. Canada follows with substantial but comparatively lower market size.
Dominant Segment (Device Type): The ECG monitor segment currently dominates the market due to its widespread use and established position. However, the implantable cardiac loop recorder (ICLR) and smart wearable segments are expected to experience significant growth due to technological advancements and convenience.
Dominant Segment (End User): Hospitals and clinics constitute the largest end-user segment due to their established infrastructure and access to advanced diagnostic technologies. However, the home care settings segment is witnessing rapid expansion owing to the rising preference for convenient and cost-effective remote monitoring solutions.
Key Drivers (United States): Robust healthcare infrastructure, high spending on healthcare, advanced medical technologies, government initiatives to improve cardiac health, and increasing awareness about cardiovascular diseases.
Key Drivers (Canada): Growing elderly population, increasing prevalence of cardiac diseases, government funding for healthcare research and development, and improving healthcare infrastructure.
North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Product Innovations
Recent product innovations focus on enhanced features like wireless connectivity, mobile app integration, AI-powered diagnostic capabilities, improved patient comfort, and miniaturized device form factors. These innovations offer advantages such as improved patient compliance, remote monitoring capabilities, faster diagnosis, and reduced healthcare costs. The market is witnessing a shift towards more user-friendly and wearable devices, which aligns well with the growing demand for convenient and accessible healthcare solutions.
Report Scope & Segmentation Analysis
The report segments the North America cardiac holter monitor market by device type (ECG monitor, event recorder, implantable cardiac loop recorder, pacemaker, defibrillator, cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) devices, smart wearable, other device types) and by end-user (hospitals and clinics, home care settings, ambulatory surgical centers). Each segment's growth projection, market size, and competitive dynamics are detailed within the full report. The market size and growth projections for each segment are extensively analyzed throughout the report. For instance, the ECG monitor segment is predicted to hold a significant market share due to wide adoption, while the smart wearable segment exhibits substantial growth potential.
Key Drivers of North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Growth
Technological advancements resulting in smaller, more comfortable, and feature-rich devices are a significant driver. The aging population and the associated rise in cardiovascular diseases are major contributors. Favorable regulatory environments and reimbursement policies support market growth. Increased awareness of cardiovascular health and the benefits of early detection also stimulate demand.
Challenges in the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Sector
High device costs and limited insurance coverage can hinder market penetration. Supply chain disruptions and potential shortages of components can impact production and availability. Stringent regulatory approvals and compliance requirements may pose challenges for new entrants. Intense competition among established players can squeeze profit margins.
Emerging Opportunities in North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market
The integration of AI and machine learning in cardiac monitoring offers significant potential for improved diagnostics and personalized care. The expansion of telehealth and remote patient monitoring creates new opportunities for convenient and cost-effective solutions. The development of novel device designs, such as implantable devices with longer lifespans, presents further growth potential. The untapped market in underserved communities represents an important opportunity.
Leading Players in the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Market
- iRhythm Technologies Inc.
- Biotronik
- Schiller AG
- Baxter International Inc. (Hill-Rom Holdings Inc.)
- Koninklijke Philips N.V. (Biotelemetry)
- Abbott Laboratories
- Microport Scientific Corporation
- Medtronic PLC
- General Electric Company (GE Healthcare)
- Canon Medical Systems Corporation
- Livanova PLC
- Boston Scientific Corporation
Key Developments in North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Industry
- December 2022: Biotricity, Inc. submitted a 510(k) application to the FDA for its Biotres Cardiac Monitoring Device.
- June 2022: The FDA approved Medicalgorithmics' Qpatch ECG wearable unit.
Future Outlook for North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Market
The future of the North American cardiac holter monitor market is bright. Continued technological advancements, along with an aging population and rising prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, will drive substantial market growth. The increasing integration of AI and remote monitoring technologies will further enhance the market's potential. Strategic partnerships and mergers & acquisitions will shape the industry landscape, leading to continued consolidation and innovation.
North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Segmentation
-
1. Device Type
- 1.1. ECG Monitor
- 1.2. Event Recorder
- 1.3. Implantable Cardiac Loop Recorder
- 1.4. Pacemaker
- 1.5. Defibrillator
- 1.6. Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) Devices
- 1.7. Smart Wearable
- 1.8. Other Device Types
-
2. End User
- 2.1. Hospitals and Clinics
- 2.2. Home Care Settings
- 2.3. Ambulatory Surgical Centers
-
3. Geography
- 3.1. United States
- 3.2. Canada
- 3.3. Mexico
North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. United States
- 2. Canada
- 3. Mexico

North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 5.43% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1 Rising Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases; Advancements in Technology; Demand for Home-based
- 3.2.2 Point of Care
- 3.2.3 and Remote Monitoring Cardiac Systems
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Risk of Infection Due to Implantable Monitoring Devices; Unfavourable Reimbursement Policies
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. The Pacemaker Segment is Poised to Hold a Significant Share in the North American Cardiac Monitoring Market Over the Forecast Period
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 5.1.1. ECG Monitor
- 5.1.2. Event Recorder
- 5.1.3. Implantable Cardiac Loop Recorder
- 5.1.4. Pacemaker
- 5.1.5. Defibrillator
- 5.1.6. Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) Devices
- 5.1.7. Smart Wearable
- 5.1.8. Other Device Types
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 5.2.1. Hospitals and Clinics
- 5.2.2. Home Care Settings
- 5.2.3. Ambulatory Surgical Centers
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 5.3.1. United States
- 5.3.2. Canada
- 5.3.3. Mexico
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. United States
- 5.4.2. Canada
- 5.4.3. Mexico
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 6. United States North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 6.1.1. ECG Monitor
- 6.1.2. Event Recorder
- 6.1.3. Implantable Cardiac Loop Recorder
- 6.1.4. Pacemaker
- 6.1.5. Defibrillator
- 6.1.6. Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) Devices
- 6.1.7. Smart Wearable
- 6.1.8. Other Device Types
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 6.2.1. Hospitals and Clinics
- 6.2.2. Home Care Settings
- 6.2.3. Ambulatory Surgical Centers
- 6.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 6.3.1. United States
- 6.3.2. Canada
- 6.3.3. Mexico
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 7. Canada North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 7.1.1. ECG Monitor
- 7.1.2. Event Recorder
- 7.1.3. Implantable Cardiac Loop Recorder
- 7.1.4. Pacemaker
- 7.1.5. Defibrillator
- 7.1.6. Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) Devices
- 7.1.7. Smart Wearable
- 7.1.8. Other Device Types
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 7.2.1. Hospitals and Clinics
- 7.2.2. Home Care Settings
- 7.2.3. Ambulatory Surgical Centers
- 7.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 7.3.1. United States
- 7.3.2. Canada
- 7.3.3. Mexico
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 8. Mexico North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 8.1.1. ECG Monitor
- 8.1.2. Event Recorder
- 8.1.3. Implantable Cardiac Loop Recorder
- 8.1.4. Pacemaker
- 8.1.5. Defibrillator
- 8.1.6. Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) Devices
- 8.1.7. Smart Wearable
- 8.1.8. Other Device Types
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 8.2.1. Hospitals and Clinics
- 8.2.2. Home Care Settings
- 8.2.3. Ambulatory Surgical Centers
- 8.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 8.3.1. United States
- 8.3.2. Canada
- 8.3.3. Mexico
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Device Type
- 9. United States North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10. Canada North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11. Mexico North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Rest of North America North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. Competitive Analysis
- 13.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 13.2. Company Profiles
- 13.2.1 iRhythm Technologies Inc
- 13.2.1.1. Overview
- 13.2.1.2. Products
- 13.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.2 Biotronik
- 13.2.2.1. Overview
- 13.2.2.2. Products
- 13.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.3 Schiller AG
- 13.2.3.1. Overview
- 13.2.3.2. Products
- 13.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.4 Baxter International Inc (Hill-Rom Holdings Inc )
- 13.2.4.1. Overview
- 13.2.4.2. Products
- 13.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.5 Koninklijke Philips N V (Biotelemetry)
- 13.2.5.1. Overview
- 13.2.5.2. Products
- 13.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.6 Abbott Laboratories
- 13.2.6.1. Overview
- 13.2.6.2. Products
- 13.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.7 Microport Scientific Corporation*List Not Exhaustive
- 13.2.7.1. Overview
- 13.2.7.2. Products
- 13.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.8 Medtronic PLC
- 13.2.8.1. Overview
- 13.2.8.2. Products
- 13.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.9 General Electric Company (GE Healthcare)
- 13.2.9.1. Overview
- 13.2.9.2. Products
- 13.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.10 Canon Medical Systems Corporation
- 13.2.10.1. Overview
- 13.2.10.2. Products
- 13.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.11 Livanova PLC
- 13.2.11.1. Overview
- 13.2.11.2. Products
- 13.2.11.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.11.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.11.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.12 Boston Scientific Corporation
- 13.2.12.1. Overview
- 13.2.12.2. Products
- 13.2.12.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.12.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.12.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.1 iRhythm Technologies Inc
List of Figures
- Figure 1: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Device Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: United States North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Canada North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Mexico North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Rest of North America North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Device Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Device Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Device Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 5.43%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market?
Key companies in the market include iRhythm Technologies Inc, Biotronik, Schiller AG, Baxter International Inc (Hill-Rom Holdings Inc ), Koninklijke Philips N V (Biotelemetry), Abbott Laboratories, Microport Scientific Corporation*List Not Exhaustive, Medtronic PLC, General Electric Company (GE Healthcare), Canon Medical Systems Corporation, Livanova PLC, Boston Scientific Corporation.
3. What are the main segments of the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market?
The market segments include Device Type, End User, Geography.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 11.96 Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Rising Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases; Advancements in Technology; Demand for Home-based. Point of Care. and Remote Monitoring Cardiac Systems.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
The Pacemaker Segment is Poised to Hold a Significant Share in the North American Cardiac Monitoring Market Over the Forecast Period.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Risk of Infection Due to Implantable Monitoring Devices; Unfavourable Reimbursement Policies.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
In December 2022, Biotricity, Inc. made a 510(k) submission to the United States FDA for a new form factor of its Biotres Cardiac Monitoring Device, which is a three-lead device for ECG and arrhythmia monitoring that is intended for lower-risk patients.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the North America Cardiac Holter Monitor Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence